History

Periodization is the process or study of categorizing the past into discrete, quantified named blocks of time in order to facilitate the study and analysis of history. This results in descriptive abstractions that provide convenient terms for periods of time with relatively stable characteristics. However, determining the precise beginning and ending to any "period" is often arbitrary. It has changed over time in history.

• Pre-History
  Human prehistory is the period between the use of the first stone tools c. 3.3 million years ago and the invention of writing systems. The earliest writing systems appeared c. 5,300 years ago, but writing was not used in some human cultures until the 19th century or even later. The end of prehistory therefore came at very different dates in different places, and the term is less often used in discussing societies where prehistory ended relatively recently.
  • Stone Age
    • Palaeolithic
    • Mesolithic
    • Neolithic
    • Chalcolithic
  • Bronze Age
  • Iron Age
• General Periods
  A universal history is a work aiming at the presentation of the history of humankind as a whole, coherent unit. A universal chronicle or world chronicle traces history from the beginning of written information about the past up to the present. Universal history embraces the events of all times and nations in so far as scientific treatment of them is possible.
  • Protohistory
  • Ancient History
    • Classical Antiquity
  • Post-Classical History
    • Early Middle Ages
    • High Middle Ages
    • Late Middle Ages
  • Modern History
    • Early Modern Period
    • Late Modern Period 
    • Contemporary History
• American Periods
  The prehistory of the Americas (North, South, and Central America, and the Caribbean) begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an Ice Age. These groups are generally believed to have been isolated from peoples of the "Old World" until the coming of Europeans in the 10th century from Norway and with the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492. The ancestors of today's American Indigenous peoples were the Paleo-Indians; they were hunter-gatherers who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the Americas via Beringia, the land mass now covered by the ocean waters of the Bering Strait. Small lithic stage peoples followed megafauna like bison, mammoth (now extinct), and caribou, thus gaining the modern nickname "big-game hunters." Groups of people may also have traveled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast. Cultural traits brought by the first immigrants later evolved and spawned such cultures as Iroquois on North America and Pirahã of South America. These cultures later developed into civilizations. In many cases, these cultures expanded at a later date than their Old World counterparts. Cultures that may be considered advanced or civilized include Norte Chico, Cahokia, Zapotec, Toltec, Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Chimor, Mixtec, Moche, Mississippian, Puebloan, Totonac, Teotihuacan, Huastec people, Purépecha, Izapa, Mazatec, Muisca, and the Inca. After the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Spanish, Portuguese and later English, French and Dutch colonial expeditions arrived in the New World, conquering and settling the discovered lands, which led to a transformation of the cultural and physical landscape in the Americas. Spain colonized most of the American continent from present-day Southwestern United States, Florida and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America. Portugal settled in what is mostly present-day Brazil while England established colonies on the Eastern coast of the United States, as well as the North Pacific coast and in most of Canada. France settled in Quebec and other parts of Eastern Canada and claimed an area in what is today the central United States. The Netherlands settled New Netherland (administrative centre New Amsterdam - now New York), some Caribbean islands and parts of Northern South America. European colonization of the Americas led to the rise of new cultures, civilizations and eventually states, which resulted from the fusion of Native American and European traditions, peoples and institutions. The transformation of American cultures through colonization is evident in architecture, religion, gastronomy, the arts and particularly languages, the most widespread being Spanish (376 million speakers), English (348 million) and Portuguese (201 million). The colonial period lasted approximately three centuries, from the early 16th to the early 19th centuries, when Brazil and the larger Hispanic American nations declared independence. The United States obtained independence from England much earlier, in 1776, while Canada formed a federal dominion in 1867. Others remained attached to their European parent state until the end of the 19th century, such as Cuba and Puerto Rico which were linked to Spain until 1898. Smaller territories such as Guyana obtained independence in the mid-20th century, while certain Caribbean islands and French Guiana remain part of a European power to this day.
  • Classic and Postclassic eras
  • Early Intermediate, Middle Horizon, Late Intermediate, Late Horizon (Peru, 200–1534)
    • Huari
    • Chimú
    • Chincha
    • Chanka people
    • Tiwanaku
    • Inca
  • Baroque (New World, 1600–1750)
  • Spanish hegemony (Americas, 16th century – 1820s)
  • Reconstruction era (United States, 1865–1877)
  • Gilded Age (United States, 1875–1900)
  • Progressive Era (United States, 1890s–1920s)
  • Jazz Age (United States, 1920s–1930s)
  • Information Age (United States, 1970–present)
  • Modern age
  • Postmodern age
• Southeast Asian Periods
  The term Southeast Asia has been in use since World War II. The region has been further divided into two distinct sub-regions, Mainland Southeast Asia (or Indochina) that comprises the modern states of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar (Burma) and West Malaysia and Maritime Southeast Asia (or Insular Southeast Asia) that comprises the modern states of Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Christmas Island. The earliest Homo sapiens presence in Mainland Southeast Asia can be traced back to 50,000 years ago and to at least 40,000 years ago in Maritime Southeast Asia. As early as 10,000 years ago, Hoabinhian settlers had developed a tradition and culture of distinct artifact and tool production. During the Neolithic, Austroasiatic peoples populated Indochina via land routes and sea-borne Austronesian immigrants preferably settled in insular Southeast Asia. The earliest agricultural societies that cultivated millet and wet-rice emerged around 1,700 BCE in the lowlands and river floodplains of Indochina. The Phung Nguyen culture (modern northern Vietnam) and the Ban Chiang site (modern Thailand) account for the earliest use of copper by around 2,000 BCE, followed by the Dong Son culture, who by around 500 BCE had developed a highly sophisticated industry of bronze production and processing. Around the same time the first Agrarian Kingdoms emerged where territory was abundant and favourable, such as Funan at the lower Mekong and Van Lang in the Red River delta. Smaller and insular principalities increasingly engaged in and contributed to the rapidly expanding sea trade.
  • Srivijaya (Indonesia, 3rd – 14th centuries)
  • Tarumanagara (358–723), 
  • Sailendra (8th and 9th centuries) 
  • Kingdom of Sunda (669–1579)
  • Kingdom of Mataram (752–1045), 
  • Kediri (1045–1221)
  • Singhasari (1222–1292)
  • Majapahit (1293–1500)
  • Chenla (Cambodia, 630 – 802) 
  • Khmer Empire (Cambodia, 802–1432)
  • Anterior Lý Dynasty 
  • Triệu Việt Vương
  • Third Chinese domination
  • Khúc Family
  • Dương Đình Nghệ
  • Kiều Công Tiễn
  • Ngô Dynasty
  • The 12 Lords Rebellion
  • Đinh Dynasty
  • Prior Lê Dynasty
  • Lý Dynasty
  • Trần Dynasty
  • Hồ Dynasty
  • Fourth Chinese domination (Vietnam, 544–1427)
• Filipino Periods
  The history of the Philippines is believed to have begun with the arrival of the first humans using rafts or boats at least 67,000 years ago as the 2007 discovery of Callao Man suggested. Negrito groups first inhabited the isles. Groups of Austronesians later migrated to the islands. Scholars generally believe that these social groups eventually developed into various settlements or polities with varying degrees of economic specialization, social stratification, and political organization. Some of these settlements (mostly those located on major river deltas) achieved such a scale of social complexity that some scholars believe they should be considered early states. This includes the predecessors of modern-day population centers such as Maynila, Tondo, Pangasinan, Cebu, Panay, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, Lanao, and Sulu as well as some polities, such as Ma-i, whose possibly location are still the subject of debate among scholars. These polities were either influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist[8] Indian religion, language, culture, literature and philosophy from India through many campaigns from India including the South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I, Islam from Arabia or were Sinified tributary states allied to China. These small maritime states flourished from the 1st millennium. These kingdoms traded with what are now called China, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The remainder of the settlements were independent barangays allied with one of the larger states. The first recorded visit by Europeans is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan. He sighted Samar Island on March 16, 1521 and landed the next day on Homonhon Island, now part of Guiuan, Eastern Samar. Spanish colonization began with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi's expedition on February 13, 1565 from Mexico. He established the first permanent settlement in Cebu. Much of the archipelago came under Spanish rule, creating the first unified political structure known as the Philippines. Spanish colonial rule saw the introduction of Christianity, the code of law and the oldest modern university in Asia. The Philippines was ruled under the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain. After which, the colony was directly governed by Spain. Spanish rule ended in 1898 with Spain's defeat in the Spanish–American War. The Philippines then became a territory of the United States. U.S forces suppressed a Philippine Revolution led by Emilio Aguinaldo. The United States established the Insular Government to rule the Philippines. In 1907, the elected Philippine Assembly was set up with popular elections. The U.S. promised independence in the Jones Act. The Philippine Commonwealth was established in 1935, as a 10-year interim step prior to full independence. However, in 1942 during World War II, Japan occupied the Philippines. The U.S. military overpowered the Japanese in 1945. The Treaty of Manila in 1946 established an independent Philippine Republic.
  • Neolithic-Iron Age (c.10,000 BC – AD 900)
  • Archaic period (AD 900–1521)
  • Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898)
  • American Colonial Period (1898–1946)
  • Sovereign Era (1946–present)
  • Marcos era Martial Law (1972–1982)
  • People power EDSA revolution (1986)
  • Post Martial Law (1986–present)
• Chinese Periods
  The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC). Ancient historical texts such as the Records of the Grand Historian (c. 100 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period, and Shang writings do not indicate the existence of the Xia. The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization. The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang, and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times. In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer lived Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949, resulting in two de facto states claiming to be the legitimate government of all China.
  • Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors (2852–2070 BCE)
  • Xia dynasty (2070–1600 BCE)
  • Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE)
  • Zhou dynasty (1046–221 BCE)
    • Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE)
    • Eastern Zhou (771–221 BCE)
  • Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE)
  • Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE)
    • Western Han (206 BCE – 2 CE)
    • Xin dynasty (9–23 CE)
    • Eastern Han (25–220 CE)
  • Six Dynasties (220–580)
    • Three Kingdoms (220–265)
    • Jin Dynasty (265–420)
    • Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–580)
  • Sui Dynasty (580–618)
  • Tang Dynasty (623–907)
  • Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960)
  • Song Dynasty (960–1279)
    • Northern Song (960–1127), Liao Dynasty (907–1115)
    • Western Xia dynasty (1038–1227)
    • Southern Song (1127–1279), Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
  • Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
  • Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
  • Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)
  • Republic of China (1912–1949)
    • Xinhai Revolution (1911–1912)
    • Warlord Era (1918–1927)
    • Chinese Civil War (1927-1936/1946-1950)
    • Second Sino-Japanese War (1931–1945)
  • People's Republic of China (1949–present)
• Central Asian Periods
  Various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu (3rd century BCE to 1st century CE), the Xianbei state (c. 93 to 234 CE), the Rouran Khaganate(330-555), the Turkic Khaganate (552-744) and others, ruled the area of present-day Mongolia. The Khitan people, who used a para-Mongolic language,[1] founded a state known as the Liao dynasty (907-1125) in Central Asia and ruled Mongolia and portions of the present-day Russian Far East, northern Korea, and North China. In 1206 Genghis Khan was able to unite and conquer the Mongols, forging them into a fighting force which went on to establish the largest contiguous empire in world history, the Mongol Empire (1206-1368). Buddhism in Mongolia began with the Yuan emperors' conversion to Tibetan Buddhism. After the collapse of the Mongol-led China-based Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols returned to their earlier patterns of internal strife. The Mongols also returned to their old shamanist ways after the collapse of their empire and only in the 16th and 17th centuries did Buddhism reemerge. At the end of the 17th century, present-day Mongolia became part of the area ruled by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. During the collapse of the Qing in 1911, Mongolia declared independence but had to struggle until 1921 to firmly establish de facto independence and until 1945 to gain international recognition. As a consequence, Mongolia came under strong Soviet influence: in 1924 the Mongolian People's Republic was declared, and Mongolian politics began to follow the same patterns as Soviet politics of the time. After the revolutions of 1989, the Mongolian Revolution of 1990 led to a multi-party system, a new constitution in 1992, and a transition to a market economy.
  • Xiongnu (Mongolia, 220 BC – AD 200)
  • Rouran Khaganate (Mongolia, Manchuria, Xianbei, AD 330 – 555)
    • Sixteen Kingdoms (Xianbei, Turkic peoples, 304 – 439)
  • Uyghur Khaganate (Mongolia, Manchuria, Tibet, 744 – 848)
  • Liao Dynasty (Khitan people, 907 – 1125)
  • Mongol Empire (Mongolia, 1206 – 1380)
  • Qing dynasty (Manchu China, 1692 – 1911)
• Egyptian Periods
  The history of Egypt has been long and rich, due to the flow of the Nile River with its fertile banks and delta, as well as the accomplishments of Egypt's native inhabitants and outside influence. Much of Egypt's ancient history was a mystery until the secrets of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs were deciphered with the discovery and help of the Rosetta Stone. Among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Great Pyramid of Giza is the only one still standing. The Library of Alexandria was the only one of its kind for centuries. Human settlement in Egypt dates back to at least 40,000 BC with Aterian tool manufacturing Ancient Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh of the First Dynasty, Narmer. Predominately native Egyptian rule lasted until the conquest by the Achaemenid Empire in the sixth century BC. In 332 BC, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered Egypt as he toppled the Achaemenids and established the Hellenistic Ptolemaic Kingdom, whose first ruler was one of Alexander's former generals, Ptolemy I Soter. The Ptolemies had to fight native rebellions and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its final annexation by Rome. The death of Cleopatra ended the nominal independence of Egypt resulting in Egypt becoming one of the provinces of the Roman Empire. Roman rule in Egypt (including Byzantine) lasted from 30 BC to 641 AD, with a brief interlude of control by the Sasanian Empire between 619–629, known as Sasanian Egypt.[citation needed] After the Muslim conquest of Egypt, parts of Egypt became provinces of successive Caliphates and other Muslim dynasties: Rashidun Caliphate (632-661), Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Abbasid Caliphate (750–909), Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171), Ayyubid Sultanate (1171–1260), and the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517). In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo, absorbing Egypt into the Ottoman Empire. Egypt remained entirely Ottoman until 1867, except during French occupation from 1798 to 1801. Starting in 1867, Egypt became a nominally autonomous tributary state called the Khedivate of Egypt. However, Khedivate Egypt fell under British control in 1882 following the Anglo-Egyptian War. After the end of World War I and following the Egyptian revolution of 1919, the Kingdom of Egypt was established. While a de jureindependent state, the United Kingdom retained control over foreign affairs, defense, and other matters. British occupation lasted until 1954, with the Anglo-Egyptian agreement of 1954. The modern Republic of Egypt was founded in 1953, and with the complete withdrawal of British forces from the Suez Canal in 1956, it marked the first time in 2300 years that Egypt was both fully independent and ruled by native Egyptians. President Gamal Abdel Nasser (president from 1956 to 1970) introduced many reforms and created the short-lived United Arab Republic (with Syria). His terms also saw the Six-Day War and the creation of the international Non-Aligned Movement. His successor, Anwar Sadat (president from 1970 to 1981) changed Egypt's trajectory, departing from many of the political, and economic tenets of Nasserism, re-instituting a multi-party system, and launching the Infitah economic policy. He led Egypt in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 to regain Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, which Israel had occupied since the Six-Day War of 1967. This later led to the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty.
  • Old Kingdom (3000 BC – 2000 BC)
  • Middle Kingdom (2000 BC – 1300 BC)
  • New Kingdom (1550 BC – 1070 BC)
  • Ptolemaic Kingdom (305 BC – 30 BC)
  • Aegyptus (30 BC – 390 AD)
  • Coptic period (300 AD – 900 AD)
  • Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)
  • Ayyubid Dynasty (1171–1250)
  • Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517)
  • Ottoman Eyalet (1517–1867)
  • Khedivate (1867–1914)
• European Periods
  The history of Europe covers the peoples inhabiting Europe from prehistory to the present. The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of ancient Greece. Later, the Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. The fall of the Roman Empire in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the Middle Ages. Beginning in the 14th century a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation set up Protestant churches primarily in Germany, Scandinavia and England. After 1800, the Industrial Revolution brought prosperity to Britain and Western Europe. The main powers set up colonies in most of the Americas and Africa, and parts of Asia. In the 20th century, World War I and World War II resulted in massive numbers of deaths. The Cold War dominated European geo-politics from 1947 to 1989. Unification into a European Union moved forward after 1950, with some setbacks. Today, most countries west of Russia belong to the NATO military alliance, along with the United States and Canada.
  • Bronze Age (c.3000 BC – c.1050 BC)
    • Early Aegean Civilisation (Crete, Greece and Near East; c.3000 BC – c.1050 BC)[4]
  • Iron Age (c.1050 BC – c.500 AD)
    • Greek expansion and colonisation (c.1050 BC – 776 BC)
    • Archaic Greece (776 BC – 480 BC) – begins with the First Olympiad, traditionally dated 776 BC
    • Classical antiquity (480 BC – 476 AD)
    • Migration Period (Europe, 300 AD – 700 AD)
  • Middle Ages (Europe, 476 – 1453)
    • Byzantine era (330–1453)
    • Early Middle Ages (Europe, 476 – 1066)
    • High Middle Ages (Europe, 1066 – c.1300)
    • Late Middle Ages (Europe, c.1300 – 1453)
    • The Renaissance (Europe, c.1300 – c.1600)
  • Early modern period (Europe, 1453 – 1789)
    • Age of Discovery (or Exploration) (Europe, c.1400 – 1770)
    • Polish Golden Age (Poland, 1507 – 1572)
    • Golden Age of Piracy 1650 – 1730
    • Elizabethan era (United Kingdom, 1558 – 1603)
    • Protestant Reformation (Europe, 16th century)
    • Classicism (Europe, 16th – 18th centuries)
    • Industrious Revolution, (Europe, 16th – 18th centuries)
    • Jacobean era (United Kingdom, 1603 – 1625)
    • Petrine Era (Russia, 1689 – 1725)
    • Age of Enlightenment (or Reason) (Europe, 18th century)
  • Long nineteenth century (1789–1914)
    • Georgian era (United Kingdom, 1714 – 1830)
    • Industrial Revolution (Europe, United States, elsewhere 18th and 19th centuries)
    • Age of European colonialism and imperialism
    • Romantic era (1770–1850)
    • Napoleonic era (1799–1815)
    • Victorian era (United Kingdom, 1837 – 1901); British hegemony (1815-1914) much of world, around the same time period.
    • Edwardian era (United Kingdom, 1901 – 1914)
  • First and Second World Wars (1914–1945)
  • Cold War (1945–1991)
  • Post-Cold War / Postmodernity (1991 – present)
• Indian Periods
  The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the advancement of civilisation from the Indus Valley Civilisation to the eventual blending of the Indo-Aryan culture to form the Vedic Civilisation; the rise of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism; the onset of a succession of powerful dynasties and empires for more than three millennia throughout various geographic areas of the subcontinent, including the growth of Muslim dominions during the Medieval period intertwined with Hindu powers; the advent of European traders and privateers, resulting in the establishment of British India; and the subsequent independence movement that led to the Partition of India and the creation of the Republic of India. Archaeological evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent is estimated to be as old as 73,000-55,000 years with some evidence of early hominids dating back to about 500,000 years ago. Considered a cradle of civilisation, the Indus Valley Civilisation, which spread and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1300 BCE, was the first major civilization in South Asia. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period, from 2600 to 1900 BCE. This civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation. The era saw the composition of the Vedas, the seminal texts of Hinduism, coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities), and social stratification based on caste. The Later Vedic Civilisation extended over the Indo-Gangetic plain and much of the subcontinent, as well as witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms, Magadha, Gautama Buddha and Mahavira propagated their Śramaṇic philosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE. Most of the Indian subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BCE onwards Prakrit and Pali literature in the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern India started to flourish. Wootz steel originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign countries. During the Classical period, various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia (Greater India). The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj that lasted for more than two centuries between the Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara-Pratihara Empire. Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan, and Western Chalukya Empires. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Maldives and Bengal in the 11th century. The early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and the Hindu numerals were introduced. Muslim rule started in parts of north India in the 13th century when the Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 CE by Central Asian Turks; though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Pakistan as early as the 8th century. The Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century. This period also saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states, notably Vijayanagara, Gajapati, Ahom, as well as Rajput states, such as Mewar. The 15th century saw the advent of Sikhism. The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughals conquered most of the Indian subcontinent. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Marathas, Sikhs and Mysoreans to exercise control over large areas of the subcontinent. From the late 18th century to the mid-19th century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company of the British Empire. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which the British provinces of India were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of rapid development of infrastructure, economic decline and major famines. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched with the leading party involved being the Indian National Congress which was later joined by other organisations. The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states.
  • Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BC – 1300 BC)
  • Vedic period (1500 BC – 500 BC)
    • Mahajanapada kingdoms
  • Maurya Empire (321 BC – 185 BC)
  • Kushan Empire (185 BC – 220 AD), Satavahana Empire (230 BC – 220 AD),
  • Gupta Empire (320 AD – 535 AD)
  • Vakatak Empire (300AD −650 AD)
  • Middle kingdoms of India (1 AD – 1279 AD)
    • Pala Empire (750–1174)
    • Sena Empire (1070–1230)
    • Hoysala Empire (1026 –1343)
    • Kakatiya Empire (1083–1323)
  • Medieval India (1206–1526)
    • Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
    • Gajapati Kingdom (1434–1541), 
    • Reddy dynasty (1325–1448)
  • Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
  • Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
  • British Raj (1858–1947)
  • Independence (1947–present)
• Japanese Periods
  The first human habitation in the Japanese archipelago has been traced to prehistoric times. The Jōmon period, named after its "cord-marked" pottery, was followed by the Yayoi in the first millennium BC, when new technologies were introduced from continental Asia. During this period, the first known written reference to Japan was recorded in the Chinese Book of Han in the first century AD. Between the fourth century and the ninth century, Japan's many kingdoms and tribes gradually came to be unified under a centralized government, nominally controlled by the Emperor. This imperial dynastycontinues to reign over Japan. In 794, a new imperial capital was established at Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), marking the beginning of the Heian period, which lasted until 1185. The Heian period is considered a golden age of classical Japanese culture. Japanese religious life from this time and onwards was a mix of native Shinto practices and Buddhism. Over the following centuries the power of the Emperor and the imperial court gradually declined and passed to the military clans and their armies of samurai warriors. The Minamoto clan under Minamoto no Yoritomo emerged victorious from the Genpei War of 1180–85. After seizing power, Yoritomo set up his capital in Kamakura and took the title of shōgun. In 1274 and 1281, the Kamakura shogunate withstood two Mongol invasions, but in 1333 it was toppled by a rival claimant to the shogunate, ushering in the Muromachi period. During the Muromachi period regional warlords called daimyōsgrew in power at the expense of the shōgun. Eventually, Japan descended into a period of civil war. Over the course of the late sixteenth century, Japan was reunified under the leadership of the daimyō Oda Nobunaga and his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi. After Hideyoshi's death in 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu came to power and was appointed shōgun by the Emperor. The Tokugawa shogunate, which governed from Edo (modern Tokyo), presided over a prosperous and peaceful era known as the Edo period (1600–1868). The Tokugawa shogunate imposed a strict class system on Japanese society and cut off almost all contact with the outside world. The American Perry Expedition in 1853–54 ended Japan's seclusion; this contributed to the fall of the shogunate and the return of power to the Emperor in 1868. The new national leadership of the following Meiji period transformed the isolated, feudal island country into an empire that closely followed Western models and became a great power. Although democracy developed and modern civilian culture prospered during the Taishō period(1912–26), Japan's powerful military had great autonomy and overruled Japan's civilian leaders in the 1920s and 1930s. The military invaded Manchuria in 1931, and from 1937 the conflict escalated into a prolonged war with China. Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 led to war with the United States and its allies. Japan's forces soon became overextended, but the military held out in spite of Allied air attacks that inflicted severe damage on population centers. Emperor Hirohito announced Japan's unconditional surrender on 15 August 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. The Allies occupied Japan until 1952, during which a new constitution was enacted in 1947 that transformed Japan into a constitutional monarchy. After 1955, Japan enjoyed very high economic growth, and became a world economic powerhouse. Since the 1990s, economic stagnation has been a major issue. An earthquake and tsunami in 2011 caused massive economic dislocations and a serious nuclear power disaster.
  • Jōmon period (10,501 BC – 400 BC)
  • Yayoi period (450 BC – 250 AD)
  • Kofun period (250–600)
  • Asuka period (643–710)
  • Nara period (743–794)
  • Heian period (795–1185)
  • Kamakura period (1185–1333)
  • Muromachi period (1333–1573)[5]
  • Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603)
  • Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868)
  • Meiji period (1868–1912)
  • Taishō period (1912–1926)
  • Shōwa period (1945–1989)
    • Post-occupation era (1952 – present)
  • Heisei period (1989–present)
• Middle Eastern Periods
  Home to the Cradle of Civilization, the Middle East (usually interchangeable with the Near East) has seen many of the world's oldest cultures and civilizations. This history started from the earliest human settlements, continuing through several major pre- and post-Islamic Empires through to the nation-states of the Middle East today.Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. Mesopotamia was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost the entire Middle East—particularly the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911–609 BC. From the early 7th century BC and onwards, the Iranian Medes followed by Achaemenid Persiaand other subsequent Iranian states empires dominated the region. In the 1st century BC, the expanding Roman Republic absorbed the whole Eastern Mediterranean, which included much of the Near East. The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, ruling from the Balkans to the Euphrates, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity, gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. From the 3rd up to the course of the 7th century AD, the entire Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and Sassanid Persia. From the 7th century, a new power was rising in the Middle East, that of Islam. The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the Mongol Empire, mainly Turkic, swept through the region. By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman emirs, linguistically Turkic and religiously Islamic, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capital of Constantinople and made themselves sultans. Large parts of the Middle East became a warground between the Ottomans and Iranian Safavids for centuries starting in the early 16th century. By 1700, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary and the balance of power along the frontier had shifted decisively in favor of the West. The British also established effective control of the Persian Gulf, and the French extended their influence into Lebanon and Syria. In 1912, the Italians seized Libya and the Dodecanese islands, just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with the European powers. A turning point in the history of the Middle East came when oil was discovered, first in Persia in 1908 and later in Saudi Arabia (in 1938) and the other Persian Gulf states, and also in Libya and Algeria. A Western dependence on Middle Eastern oil and the decline of British influence led to a growing American interest in the region. During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, Syria and Egypt made moves towards independence. The British, the French, and the Soviets departed from many parts of the Middle East during and after World War II (1939–1945). The struggle between the Arabs and the Jews in Palestine culminated in the 1947 United Nations plan to partition Palestine. Later in the midst of Cold War tensions, the Arabic-speaking countries of Western Asia and Northern Africa saw the rise of pan-Arabism. The departure of the European powers from direct control of the region, the establishment of Israel, and the increasing importance of the oil industry, marked the creation of the modern Middle East. In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was inhibited by political restrictions, corruption and cronyism, overspending on arms and prestige projects, and over-dependence on oil revenues. The wealthiest economies in the region per capita are the small oil-rich countries of Persian Gulf: Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates. A combinations of factors—among them the 1967 Six-Day War, the 1970s energy crisis beginning with the 1973 OPEC oil embargo in response to U.S. support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War, the concurrent Saudi-led popularization of Salafism/Wahhabism, and the 1978-79 Iranian Revolution —promoted the increasing rise of Islamism and the ongoing Islamic revival (Tajdid). The Fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought a global security refocus from the Cold War to a War on Terror. Starting in the early 2010s, a revolutionary wave popularly known as the Arab Spring brought major protests, uprisings, and revolutions to several Middle Eastern and Maghreb countries. Clashes in western Iraq on 30 December 2013 were preliminary to the Sunni pan-Islamist ISIL uprising.
  • Ancient Near East (Sumer, 3100 BC – 500 BC)
    • Jemdet Nasr period (3100 BC – 2900 BC)
    • Early Dynastic Period (2900 BC – 2270 BC)
    • Akkadian Empire (2270 BC – 2083 BC)
    • Gutian Dynasty (2083 BC – 2050 BC)
    • Sumerian renaissance (2050 BC – 1940 BC)
    • First Babylonian Dynasty (1830 BC – 1531 BC), Hittites (1800 BC – 1178 BC)
    • Kassites (1531 BC – 1135 BC), 
    • Mitanni (1500 BC – 1300 BC)
    • Neo-Assyrian Empire (934 BC – 609 BC)
    • Neo-Babylonian Empire (626 BC – 539 BC), Medes (678 BC – 549 BC)
  • Persian Empires (550 BC – 651 AD)
    • Achaemenid Empire (550 BC – 330 BC)
    • Conquered by Macedonian Empire (330 BC – 312 BC)
    • Seleucid Empire (312 BC – 63 BC)
    • Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD)
    • Sasanian Empire (224 AD – 651 AD)
  • Islamicate periods (7th – 21st centuries)
    • High Caliphate (685–945))
    • Earlier Middle Period (945–1250)
    • Later Middle Period (1250–1500)
    • Islamic Golden Age (c. 8th–13th century)
    • Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
    • Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
    • Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)
    • Buyid dynasty (934–1055)
    • Seljuq dynasty (1055–1171)
    • Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1341)
    • Ottoman Empire (1300–1923), 
    • Safavid Empire (1501–1736)

Particular geographic locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, continents, countries and cities. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization.

• History of Africa
  Begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on the continent, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states.
  • Prehistory
    • Paleolithic
    • Emergence of agriculture and desertification of the Sahara
    • Central Africa
    • Metallurgy
  • Antiquity
    • Ancient Egypt
    • Nubia
    • Carthage
    • Somalia
    • Roman North Africa
    • Aksum
    • West Africa
    • Bantu expansion
  • Medieval and Early Modern (6th to 18th centuries)
    • Sao civilization
    • Kanem Empire
    • Bornu Empire
    • Shilluk Kingdom
    • Baguirmi Kingdom
    • Wadai Empire
    • Luba Empire
    • Lunda Empire
    • Kingdom of Kongo
    • Horn of Africa
    • North Africa
    • Southern Africa
    • Southeast Africa
    • West Africa
  • 19th century
    • Southern Africa
    • Nguniland
    • Voortrekkers
    • European trade, exploration and conquest
    • France versus Britain: the Fashoda crisis of 1898
    • European colonial territories
  • 20th century
    • The World Wars
    • Post-war Africa: decolonization
    • Historiography of British Africa
• History of the Americas
  Is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean.
  • History of North America
  • History of Central America
  • History of the Caribbean
  • History of South America
• History of Antarctica
  Emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe.
• History of Australia
  Starts with the documentation of the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's north coast.
• History of New Zealand
  Dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land.
• History of the Pacific Islands
  Covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
• History of Europe
  Describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day.
  • Prehistory
  • Minoans and Mycenae 2700–1100 BC
  • Classical antiquity
    • Ancient Greece
    • The rise of Rome
    • Decline of the Roman Empire
    • Late Antiquity and Migration Period
  • Middle Ages
    • Byzantium
    • Early Middle Ages
    • High Middle Ages
    • Late Middle Ages
  • Early modern Europe
    • Renaissance
    • Exploration and trade
    • Reformation
    • Mercantilism and colonial expansion
    • Crisis of the 17th century
    • Age of Absolutism
    • Enlightenment
  • From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914)
    • Industrial Revolution
    • Era of the French Revolution
    • Napoleon
    • Religion
    • Nations rising
    • Imperialism
  • 1914–1945: Two World wars
    • World War I
    • Paris Peace Conference
    • Interwar
    • Great Depression: 1929–1939
    • World War II
  • Cold War Era
    • Economic recovery
  • Recent history
• History of Asia
  Can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe.
  • History of East Asia
  • History of the Middle East
  • History of India
  • History of Southeast Asia

Military history is a humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures, economies and changing local and international relationships. The essential subjects of military history study are the causes of war, the social and cultural foundations, military doctrine on each side, the logistics, leadership, technology, strategy, and tactics used, and how these changed over time. On the other hand, Just War Theory explores the moral dimensions of warfare, and to better limit the destructive reality caused by war, seeks to establish a doctrine of military ethics.

• Technological evolution
  New weapons development can dramatically alter the face of war, the cost of warfare, the preparations, and the training of soldiers and leaders. A rule of thumb is that if your enemy has a potentially war winning weapon, you have to either match it or neutralize it
  • Ancient era
  • Middle-ages
  • The rise of gunpowder
  • Modern technologies
• Periods of military history
  The influence of technology on military history, and evident Eurocentrism are nowhere more pronounced than in the attempt by the military historians to divide their subject area into more manageable periods of analysis. While general discipline of history subdivides history into Ancient history (Classical antiquity), Middle Ages (Europe, 4th century – 15th century), Early Modern period (Europe, 14th century – 18th century), Modern era (Europe, 18th century – 20th century), and the Post-Modern (USA, 1949–present), the periodisation below stresses technological change in its emphasis, particularly the crucial dramatic change during the Gunpowder warfare period. Periodisation is not uniformly applied through time and space, affirming the claims of Eurocentrism from regional historians. For example, what might be described as prehistoric warfare is still practiced in a few parts of the world. Other eras that are distinct in European history, such as the era of medieval warfare, may have little relevance in East Asia.
  • Ancient warfare
  • Medieval warfare
  • Gunpowder warfare
  • Industrial warfare
  • Modern warfare

The history of religion refers to the written record of human religious experiences and ideas. This period of religious history begins with the invention of writing about 5,200 years ago (3200 BCE). The prehistory of religion involves the study of religious beliefs that existed prior to the advent of written records. One can also study comparative religious chronology through a timeline of religion.

• Origin
  The earliest evidence of religious ideas dates back several hundred thousand years to the Middle and Lower Paleolithic periods. Archaeologists refer to apparent intentional burials of early Homo sapiens from as early as 300,000 years ago as evidence of religious ideas. Other evidence of religious ideas include symbolic artifacts from Middle Stone Age sites in Africa. However, the interpretation of early paleolithic artifacts, with regard to how they relate to religious ideas, remains controversial. Archeological evidence from more recent periods is less controversial. Scientists generally interpret a number of artifacts from the Upper Paleolithic (50,000-13,000 BCE) as representing religious ideas. Examples of Upper Paleolithic remains associated with religious beliefs include the lion man, the Venus figurines, cave paintings from Chauvet Cave and the elaborate ritual burial from Sungir
• Axial age
  Historians have labelled the period from 900 to 200 BCE as the "axial age", a term coined by German-Swiss philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883-1969). According to Jaspers, in this era of history "the spiritual foundations of humanity were laid simultaneously and independently... And these are the foundations upon which humanity still subsists today." Intellectual historian Peter Watson has summarized this period as the foundation time of many of humanity's most influential philosophical traditions, including monotheism in Persia and Canaan, Platonism in Greece, Buddhism and Jainism in India, and Confucianism and Taoism in China. These ideas would become institutionalized in time - note for example Ashoka's role in the spread of Buddhism, or the role of platonic philosophy in Christianity at its foundation.
• Middle Ages
  During the Middle Ages, Muslims came into conflict with Zoroastrians during the Islamic conquest of Persia (633-654); Christians fought against Muslims during the Byzantine-Arab Wars (7th to 11th centuries), the Crusades (1095 onward), the Reconquista (718-1492), the Ottoman wars in Europe (13th century onwards) and the Inquisition; Shamanism was in conflict with Buddhists, Taoists, Muslims and Christians during the Mongol invasions (1206-1337); and Muslims clashed with Hindus and Sikhs during the Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent (8th to 16th centuries). Many medieval religious movements emphasized mysticism, such as the Cathars and related movements in the West, the Jews in Spain (see Zohar), the Bhakti movement in India and Sufism in Islam. Monotheism reached definite forms in Christian Christology and in Islamic Tawhid. Hindu monotheist notions of Brahman likewise reached their classical form with the teaching of Adi Shankara (788-820).
• Modern period
  European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, and to the Americas, Australia and the Philippines. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century played a major role in the rapid spread of the Protestant Reformation under leaders such as Martin Luther (1483-1546) and John Calvin (1509-1564). Wars of religion broke out, culminating in the Thirty Years War which ravaged central Europe between 1618 and 1648. The 18th century saw the beginning of secularisation in Europe, gaining momentum after the French Revolution of 1789 and following. By the late 20th century religion had declined in most of Europe
• Shamanism and ancestor worship
  Shamanism is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching altered states of consciousness in order to perceive and interact with a spirit world and channel these transcendental energies into this world. The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of the living. Some groups venerate their direct, familial ancestors. Certain faith communities, in particular the Roman Catholic Church, venerate saints as intercessors with God, as well as pray for departed souls in Purgatory.
• Panentheism
  Panentheism (meaning "all-in-God", from the Ancient Greek πᾶν pân, "all", ἐν en, "in" and Θεός Theós, "God")[1] is the belief that the divine pervades and interpenetrates every part of the universe and also extends beyond time and space. The term was coined by the German philosopher Karl Krausein 1828 to distinguish the ideas of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854) about the relation of God and the universe from the supposed pantheism of Baruch Spinoza. Unlike pantheism, which holds that the divine and the universe are identical, panentheism maintains an ontological distinction between the divine and the non-divine and the significance of both.
  • Hinduism
  • Taoism
  • Buddhism
  • Christianity
  • Gnosticism
  • Judaism
  • Islam
  • In Pre-Colombian America
  • Sikhism
  • Bahá'í Faith
  • Konkōkyō
• Polytheism
  Polytheism (from Greek πολυθεϊσμός, polytheismos) is the worship of or belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of godsand goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals. In most religions which accept polytheism, the different gods and goddesses are representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles, and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator deity or transcendentalabsolute principle (monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature (panentheistic and pantheistic theologies). Most of the polytheistic deities of ancient religions, with the notable exceptions of the Ancient Egyptian and Hindu deities, were conceived as having physical bodies. 
  • Historical polytheism
    • Ancient Greece
    • Ancient Rome
  • Folk religion
  • Contemporary world religions
    • Buddhism and Shinto
    • Mormonism
    • Hinduism
    • Reconstructionism
    • Serer religion
  • Neopaganism
    • Wicca
• Monotheism
  Monotheism has been defined as the belief in the existence of only one god that created the world, is all-powerful and intervenes in the world. A broader definition of monotheism is the belief in one god. A distinction may be made between exclusive monotheism, and both inclusive monotheism and pluriform (panentheistic) monotheism which, while recognising various distinct gods, postulate some underlying unity.
  • Origins
  • Abrahamic religions
    • Judaism
    • Christianity
    • Islam
    • Sabianism
    • Bahá'í Faith
  • Atenism
  • Chinese view
  • Indigenous African religion
  • Indo-European religions
    • Proto-Indo-European religion
    • Indo-Iranian religions
    • Ancient Greek religion
  • New religious movements
  • Tengrism
  • Native American religion
• Monism
  Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept e.g., existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished
  1) Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them e.g., in Neoplatonism everything is derived from The One. In this view only one thing is ontologically basic or prior to everything else.
  2) Existence monism posits that, strictly speaking, there exists only a single thing, the Universe, which can only be artificially and arbitrarily divided into many things.
  3) Substance monism asserts that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance. Substance monism posits that only one kind of stuff exists, although many things may be made up of this stuff, e.g., matter or mind.
  • Pantheism
  • Panentheism
  • Pandeism
  • Asian traditions
  • Abrahamic faiths
  • Sufism
  • Bahá'í
  • Non-dualism
  • Dualism
• New religious movements
  A new religious movement (NRM), also known as a new religion or an alternative spirituality, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and which occupies a peripheral place within its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or part of a wider religion, in which case they are distinct from pre-existing denominations. Some NRMs deal with the challenges posed by the modernizing world by embracing individualism whereas others seek tightly knit collective means. Scholars have estimated that NRMs now number in the tens of thousands worldwide, with most of their members living in Asia and Africa. Most have only a few members, some have thousands, and only very few have more than one million members

Cultural history combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past matter, encompassing the continuum of events (occurring in succession and leading from the past to the present and even into the future) pertaining to a culture.

Cultural history records and interprets past events involving human beings through the social, cultural, and political milieu of or relating to the arts and manners that a group favors. Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897) helped found cultural history as a discipline. Cultural history studies and interprets the record of human societies by denoting the various distinctive ways of living built up by a group of people under consideration. Cultural history involves the aggregate of past cultural activity, such as ceremony, class in practices, and the interaction with locales

• Entertainment
  Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience, or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audience's attention. Although people's attention is held by different things, because individuals have different preferences in entertainment, most forms are recognisable and familiar. Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, developed into sophisticated forms and over time became available to all citizens. The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products. Entertainment evolves and can be adapted to suit any scale, ranging from an individual who chooses a private entertainment from a now enormous array of pre-recorded products; to a banquet adapted for two; to any size or type of party, with appropriate music and dance; to performances intended for thousands; and even for a global audience
  • Films
  • Television programs
  • Music
  • Banquets
  • Music
  • Games
  • Reading
  • Comedy
  • Performance
    • Storytelling
    • Theatre
    • Cinema and film
    • Dance
    • Animals
    • Circus
    • Magic
    • Street performance
    • Parades
    • Fireworks
  • Sport
  • Fairs, expositions, shopping
• Sport
  Sport includes all forms of competitive physical activity or games which, through casual or organised participation, aim to use, maintain or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants, and in some cases, entertainment for spectators
• Corporate branding
  Corporate branding refers to the practice of promoting the brand name of a corporate entity, as opposed to specific products or services. The activities and thinking that go into corporate branding are different from product and service branding because the scope of a corporate brand is typically much broader. It should also be noted that while corporate branding is a distinct activity from product or service branding, these different forms of branding can, and often do, take place side-by-side within a given corporation. The ways in which corporate brands and other brands interact is known as the corporate brand architecture.
  • Brand architecture
  • Brand management
  • Brand orientation
  • Brand
  • Employer branding
  • Family branding
  • Individual branding
  • Marketing
  • Trademark
  • Umbrella brand

Diplomatic history deals with the history of international relations between states. Diplomatic history can be different from international relations in that the former can concern itself with the foreign policy of one state while the latter deals with relations between two or more states. Diplomatic history tends to be more concerned with the history of diplomacy, but international relations concern more with current events and creating a model intended to shed explanatory light on international politics.

• Byzantine diplomacy
  Byzantine diplomacy concerns the principles, methods, mechanisms, ideals, and techniques that the Byzantine Empire espoused and used in order to negotiate with other states and to promote the goals of its foreign policy. Dimitri Obolensky asserts that the preservation of civilization in Eastern Europewas due to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy, which remains one of Byzantium's lasting contributions to the history of Europe and the Middle East.
• Diplomacy
  Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of states. It usually refers to international diplomacy, the conduct of international relations through the intercession of professional diplomats with regard to a full range of topical issues. International treaties are usually negotiated by diplomats prior to endorsement by national politicians. David Stevenson reports that by 1900 the term "diplomats" also covered diplomatic services, consular services and foreign ministry officials.
  • Preventive diplomacy
  • Public diplomacy
  • Soft power
  • Economic diplomacy
  • Counterinsurgency diplomacy
  • Gunboat diplomacy
  • Appeasement
  • Nuclear diplomacy
• Diplomatic history of Australia
  Foreign relations of Australia are influenced by its position as a leading trading nation and as a significant donor of humanitarian aid. Australia's foreign policy is guided by a commitment to multilateralism and regionalism, as well as to strong bilateral relations with its allies. Key concerns include free trade, terrorism, refugees, economic co-operation with Asia and stability in the Asia-Pacific. Australia is active in the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations. Given its history of starting and supporting important regional and global initiatives, it has been described as a regional middle power par excellence
• Diplomatic history of World War I
  The Diplomatic history of World War I covers the non-military interactions among the major players during World War I. For the domestic histories see Home front during World War I. For a longer-term perspective see International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) and Causes of World War I. For the following era see International relations (1919–1939). The major allied players included Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy (starting in 1915) and the United States (from 1917). The major Central Powers included Germany and the Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). Other countries—and their colonies—were also involved. For a detailed chronology see Timeline of World War I.
• Diplomatic history of World War II
  The Diplomatic history of World War II includes the major foreign policies and interactions inside the opposing coalitions, the Allies and the Axis powers. The military history of the war is covered at World War II. The prewar diplomacy is covered in Causes of World War II and International relations (1919–1939).
• Eastern Question, regarding Eastern Europe and Middle East
  In diplomatic history, the "Eastern Question" refers to the strategic competition and political considerations of the European Great Powers in light of the political and economic instability in the Ottoman Empire from the late 18th to early 20th centuries. Characterized as the "sick man of Europe", the relative weakening of the empire's military strength in the second half of the eighteenth century threatened to undermine the fragile balance of power system largely shaped by the Concert of Europe. The Eastern Question encompassed myriad interrelated elements: Ottoman military defeats, Ottoman institutional insolvency, the ongoing Ottoman political and economic modernization programme, the rise of ethno-religious nationalism in its provinces, and Great Power rivalries.
• Foreign relations of imperial China
  Imperial China had a long tradition of foreign relations. From the Qin dynasty until the Qing dynasty, Chinese culture had influenced neighboring and distant countries, while gradually being transformed by outside influences as well. For the later history after 1800 see Foreign relations of China#History.
• History of French foreign relations
  In the 19th century France built a new colonial empire second only to the British Empire. It was humiliated in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, which marked the rise of Germany to dominance in Europe. France was on the winning side of the First World War, but fared poorly in the Second World War. It fought losing wars in Indochina (ending in 1954) and Algeria (ending in 1958). Under Charles De Gaulle it tried to block American and British influence on the European community. Since 1945 France has been a founding member of the United Nations, of NATO, and of the European Coal and Steel Community (the European Union's predecessor). As a charter member of the United Nations, France holds one of the permanent seats in the Security Council and is a member of most of its specialized and related agencies.
• History of German foreign policy
  The History of German foreign policy covers diplomatic developments and international history since 1871.
• History of Japanese foreign relations
  History of Japanese foreign relations Covers the international relations in terms of diplomacy, economics and political affairs from about 1850 to 2000. For the wars, see Military history of Japan
• Foreign policy of the Russian Empire
  The Foreign policy of the Russian Empire covers Russian foreign relations down to 1917. All the main decisions in the Russian Empire were made by the tsar (tsarist autocracy), so there was a uniformity of policy and a forcefulness during the long regimes of powerful leaders such as Peter the Great and Catherine the Great. However, there were numerous weak tsars—such as children with a regent in control—as well as numerous plots and assassinations. With weak tsars or rapid turnover there was unpredictability and even chaos.
• History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom
  The history of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom covers British foreign policy from about 1500 to 2000. For the current situation since 2000 see Foreign relations of the United Kingdom.
• History of U.S. foreign policy
  History of United States foreign policy is a brief overview of major trends regarding the foreign policy of the United States from the American Revolution to the present. The major themes are becoming an "Empire of Liberty", promoting democracy, expanding across the continent, supporting liberal internationalism, contesting World Wars and the Cold War, fighting international terrorism, "developing" or exploiting the Third World, and building a strong world economy.
  • Office of the Historian of the U.S. Department of State
  • Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations
• International relations 1648-1814
  International relations from 1648–1814 covers the major interactions of the nations of Europe, as well as the other continents, with emphasis on diplomacy, warfare, migration, and cultural interactions, from the Peace of Westphalia to the Congress of Vienna. It is followed by International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919).
  • Europe 1648–1721
    • Population and army strength
    • Great Turkish War: 1683–1699
    • British policy under William III 1689-1702
    • Nine Years War: 1688–1697
    • Great Northern War: 1700–1721
    • The War of the Spanish Succession: 1702–1714
  • Europe: 1715–1789
    • Peaceful interlude: 1715–1740
    • Britain: the trading nation
    • Seven Years' War
    • American War for Independence
    • Europe: 1789-1815: French Revolution and Napoleon
    • Colonial uprisings
    • Napoleonic wars
  • China
    • Impact of the West
    • 5.2Ten Great Campaigns
  • India
    • The Mughal Empire
    • East India Company
• International relations (1814–1919)
  This article covers worldwide diplomacy and, more generally, the international relations of the major powers from 1814 to 1919, particularly the "Big Four". The international relations of minor countries are covered in their own history articles. This era covers the period from the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), to the end of the First World War and the Paris Peace Conference. For the previous era see International relations, 1648–1814. For the 1920s and 1930s see International relations (1919–1939).
• International relations (1919–1939)
  International relations (1919–1939) covers the main interactions shaping world history in this era, with emphasis on diplomacy and economic relations. The coverage here follows Diplomatic history of World War I and precedes Diplomatic history of World War II. The important stages of interwar diplomacy and international relations included resolutions of wartime issues, such as reparations owed by Germany and boundaries; American involvement in European finances and disarmament projects; the expectations and failures of the League of Nations; the relationships of the new countries to the old; the distrustful relations of the Soviet Union to the capitalist world; peace and disarmament efforts; responses to the Great Depression starting in 1929; the collapse of world trade; the collapse of democratic regimes one by one; the growth of economic autarky; Japanese aggressiveness toward China; Fascist diplomacy, including the aggressive moves by Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany; the Spanish Civil War; the appeasement of Germany's expansionist moves toward the Rhineland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, and the last, desperate stages of rearmament as another world war increasingly loomed.
  • Great Britain
    • Labour Party
    • Great Depression
    • Appeasement of Germany and Italy
  • France
    • 1920s
    • 1930s
  • Fascism
  • Germany
    • Weimar Germany (1919–1933)
    • Nazi Germany (1933–1945)
    • 1933–1935
    • 1936–37
  • Eastern Europe
    • Baltic states
    • Greece
    • Hungary
  • Soviet Union
    • Popular Front
    • Ukraine
  • Spanish Civil War
  • Brazil
  • Border disputes and warfare
  • Egypt
  • Japan
  • China
  • Coming of World War II
• International Relations (20th Century)
  The history of the 20th century was shaped by the changing relations of the world’s great powers. The first half of the century, the age of the World Wars and the start of the Cold War, was dominated by the rivalries of those powers. The second half saw the replacement, largely through the agency of those wars, of the European state system by a world system with many centres of both power and discord.
• 21st Century in International Relations
  This is a year by year breakdown of international relationships in the 21st century.
• International relations by century
  This is a century by century breakdown of international relationships starting with 10th century B.C. all the way through the 21st century.